Kenya Rural

Uses phone calls to stay in touch with close family members and customers for livelihood-related purposes. Messaging may not be operated directly; text messages may be sent and read with help from others.

Use is largely focused on personal communication. Uses WhatsApp to send and receive voice notes with known contacts, with limited use beyond this.

Uses platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook to expand her social network. May actively create and participate in groups across platforms.

Relies on radio for entertainment, religious sermons, and health-related information.

Primarily consumes content passively, often when she has access through a shared device. Entertainment may centre on music and video content shared via Bluetooth, Xender, or memory cards. May also use offline apps such as Bible apps, games, or basic photo filters, with engagement oriented toward consumption rather than posting or active participation.

Actively engages on social media platforms like YouTube, Snapchat, TikTok by posting and interacting with content.

Learning opportunities are limited. Use is not typically oriented toward intentional information-seeking.

May come across information incidentally but does not typically search widely across platforms. May use WhatsApp groups to share with known networks and ask specific questions (e.g., sharing images of plants and seeking advice).

Actively uses platforms such as Google, YouTube, Facebook, and TikTok to search for information (e.g., health information for new mothers). May stay updated with national or local news through social media or other online media.

Primarily receives money via M-Pesa and often relies on others for assistance with transactions.

Uses M-Pesa for transactions and may use related services such as Pochi accounts or savings features within the M-Pesa ecosystem.

Likely a confident M-Pesa user. May use additional loan apps (e.g., Zash) alongside M-Pesa for transactions, savings, and financial tracking.

Use does not typically extend to self-promotion or personal expression.

Engagement is largely passive and oriented toward consumption rather than self-promotion or personal expression.

May actively share and post content on platforms such as Facebook and TikTok for both business needs and personal expression.

Does not typically engage in financial or health tracking on digital devices.

Does not typically engage in financial or health tracking on digital devices.

May use specific apps or services for financial tracking.

Lack of early exposure combined with limited formal education may render some parts of phone functionality inaccessible.

May have some prior exposure through shared devices and can read basic instructions, but may still require support to navigate new tasks. Knows basic navigation and functionality and may explore social media passively or engage in offline sharing.

Prior digital exposure and high levels of formal education supports her ability to navigate apps like Facebook and WhatsApp through on-screen prompts. Is capable of learning more advanced uses and exploring new applications.

Learns through repeated demonstrations and may rely on pattern recognition (e.g., understanding recurring M-Pesa message formats).

Requires hands-on, demonstrative guidance when learning new tasks. May need step-by-step support initially for social media navigation or offline sharing, but can manage familiar tasks independently once routines are established. Exploration may still be done independently, particularly if she prefers not to rely on others.

Early exposure to phones may support confident exploration. Often learns through trial and error and by observing friends or siblings. May require occasional one-off nudges to expand into more advanced use.

May require support with basic phone functionality, including making and receiving calls or using the radio.

May require assistance with account setup, basic navigation of social media apps, advanced Bluetooth sharing settings, and loading airtime or data bundles.

May require occasional support for more advanced tasks, such as blocking accounts or creating media content for posting.

Partners, when available, may support basic device use, though assistance may remain intermittent.

Partners, when present, may play a significant role in teaching device use, including through shared use.

Friends and peers often support initial setup and early learning, after which she may transition to more independent use. Family members may be more involved in the early stages of device ownership.

Primarily concerned with fraud calls or M-Pesa scams and may have encountered such risks directly. Does not encounter digital risks associated with data-led use.

May have a general awareness of digital risks and is likely to have heard of scams, misleading content and obscenity from others in her network. Could also come across potential online scams herself.

Aware of a range of digital threats and may have heard of or experienced cases of account hacking or misuse, as well as obscenity on social media.

MPesa usage may expose her to financial risk, which she is often not equipped to handle. May not take active protective steps beyond basic caution.

May self-restrict by avoiding unknown links or limiting engagement on social media. May add passwords when sharing phones with children. When uncertain about content, she may seek verification from trusted others.

May continue using digital platforms while taking precautionary steps such as blocking accounts or enabling two-step verification and password protection.

Likely had very limited exposure to phones early in life, with little or no access during childhood.

Unlikely to have had her own phone in childhood but may have accessed phones belonging to parents or older siblings.

May have received a phone at an early age from parents, siblings, or peers.

May receive or purchase a phone out of necessity to stay in touch for personal or livelihood-related reasons.

May rely on hand-me-down or shared phones and may need to request access for livelihood-related use. Devices, when purchased, are often second-hand. For online use, she may rely on her partner’s phone.

More likely to acquire devices through personal savings or income, rather than relying solely on husbands or male relatives.

Use of simpler feature phones for basic functions may reduce exposure to certain types of discontinuity. SIM cards can also be transferred into borrowed devices if needed, for basic use cases. Access to backup or shared devices may be hard.

May rely on lower-quality hand-me-down smartphones or feature phones that experience more frequent technical issues and relatively expensive repairs, potentially leading to recurring interruptions. Access to backup or shared devices may not always be available.

Disruptions to smartphone access can be significant given the advanced and varied nature of use. A wide social network may help mitigate disruptions, though mitigation may involve temporary use of shared devices or downgrading to a feature phone, which can still constrain use.

Data use is likely to be absent. Airtime is typically more important than data and may represent a recurring cost, though interruptions may be less frequent due to basic use patterns.

Data, when used, is often carefully managed. Disruptions may lead to temporary self-restriction of use. Likely to buy shorter-lasting data bundles, downloading content for later viewing, or using lighter versions of apps, like Facebook Lite. If there is no data use, she only needs to actively monitor phone storage and airtime.

Advanced use requires active data management and may result in disruptions when bundles run out. She may purchase longer-lasting bundles or rely on her social network to bridge short gaps.

Charging may take place outside the home, such as at a neighbour’s house or a charging centre when accessible. As usage is basic, batteries may last longer, reducing disruption.

May actively manage usage to conserve battery. In cases of shared phone use, battery management may become more important and influence frequency of use.

May have access to electricity at home. If not, might have to charge at a neighbour’s house, charging centre or workplace, which may be be quite disruptive.

Unlikely to have had early digital exposure. In many cases, parents may themselves have limited digital familiarity, which may reduce active monitoring even when access is available.

Unlikely to have had early digital exposure. In many cases, parents may themselves have limited digital familiarity, which may reduce active monitoring even when access is available.

In cases of early digital exposure, some parents may restrict or monitor their daughters’ digital use out of concern that they may interact with boys, which is often perceived as risky or compromising.

Monitoring and control can extend to offline use with husbands or partners checking messages and calls logs.

Husbands or partners may monitor social media use, sometimes linked to concerns around infidelity. In some cases, women may be ​“banned” from using certain apps that expose them to unknown contacts.

Husbands or partners may monitor social media use, sometimes linked to concerns around infidelity. In some cases, women may be ​“banned” from using certain apps that expose them to unknown contacts.

Usage is generally basic, and partner monitoring may not always result in self-restriction, especially when phone use is connected to livelihood needs.

May self-restrict or limit digital exploration due to normative expectations, particularly in cases of shared phone use with partners. Digital use may be moderated and exploration curtailed as a way to avoid conflict or suspicion.

Some women may push back against this control and continue to find ways to engage online, which can create tension within the relationship and may in turn trigger partner violence.